25 Years of Relationship Science
In high-performance sport, we often focus on physical preparation, tactical strategy, and recovery protocols.
But one variable may be the most important key performance indicator for athletes: the quality of their relationship with their coach.
This guide synthesizes 25 years of research and breaks down the 3+1Cs Model, a framework that defines what makes a coach-athlete relationship thrive.
Whether you're a coach looking to build better connections or a performance professional supporting athletes, this guide will help you:
- Understand the psychological foundation of effective relationships
- Measure and evaluate relationship quality
- Apply evidence-based strategies to enhance connection and performance
The Power of Relationships
The Human Element of Performance
- Research in psychology suggests that strong relationships can have a profoundly positive impact on health, happiness, and longevity.
- In sport, quality relationships act as a buffer against burnout, injury, and disengagement.
- A healthy coach-athlete bond fosters motivation, trust, and effective communication —essential elements for achieving peak performance.
Defining the Relationship
- A coach-athlete relationship is a unique partnership where both individuals influence and depend on each other to grow, perform, and succeed.
- Both parties influence one another's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
- Like all relationships, it's dynamic and shaped over time.
The 3+1Cs Model Explained
1. Closeness
- The emotional tone of the relationship.
- Key elements: trust, respect, appreciation, and liking.
- Coaches who express care create athletes who feel safe, seen, and valued.
2. Commitment
- The long-term orientation and loyalty within the relationship.
- Shows up in shared goals, perseverance through challenges, and mutual investment.
- It’s the glue that holds things together during tough times.
3. Complementarity
- The behavioral dimension: cooperation, responsiveness, and teamwork.
- Think of it as dance-like coordination—each person knows their role and supports the other.
4. Co-orientation
- The shared understanding and alignment of perceptions.
- Includes empathy, perspective-taking, and consensus.
- Strong co-orientation means "seeing through each other's eyes."
How to Assess Relationship Quality
The CART-Q Tool
- Developed to measure each C from both the coach's and athlete's perspective.
- Includes direct ("I trust my coach") and perceptual ("My coach trusts me") questions.
- Helps identify gaps in perception and mutual understanding.
Insights from the Research
High 3+1Cs scores correlate with improved:
- Psychological wellbeing
- Performance outcomes
- Motivation and satisfaction
- Injury resilience and burnout protection
Strategies for Coaches to Build Relationships
Building Closeness
- Take time to understand your athletes beyond the sport.
- Express genuine appreciation, empathy, and trust.
Strengthening Commitment
- Communicate long-term vision and shared goals.
- Reaffirm your commitment during setbacks or conflict.
Enhancing Complementarity
- Define roles clearly, but allow for feedback and flexibility.
- Foster collaborative problem-solving and decision-making.
Developing Co-orientation
- Use regular check-ins to gauge understanding.
- Ask open-ended questions, such as, "How do you think I'm feeling about this season?"
Key Findings Coaches Should Know
- Individual sport athletes often report better relationships with their coaches than athletes in team sports.
- Longer coach-athlete pairings lead to greater perceived competence and satisfaction.
- Good relationships foster psychological safety, enhance the acceptance of feedback, and promote emotional resilience.
- Poor relationships can increase the risk of burnout, conflict, and injury.
Organizational Approaches
For Organizations
- Treat relational health as a key metric for coach and athlete development.
- Train coaches in emotional intelligence, communication, and interpersonal skills.
For Coaches
- Use the 3+1Cs as a reflective tool for your practice.
- Prioritize connection as much as correction.
- Invest in the person, not just the performer.
For Performance Staff
- Encourage dialogue between the athlete and the coach.
- Use CART-Q assessments to guide support strategies.
Coach's Takeaway
Great coaching starts with great relationships.
The 3+1Cs model provides a clear, evidence-based framework for assessing and improving the quality of those relationships.
By building closeness, demonstrating commitment, cooperating effectively, and cultivating shared understanding, coaches can create the conditions for both performance and personal growth.
In a world where tactics and tools are constantly evolving, human connection remains the most enduring advantage.
Reference
Jowett, S. (2025). 25 years of relationship research in sport: The quality of the coach-athlete relationship as defined by Closeness, Commitment, Complementarity and Co-orientation (3+1Cs Model). Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 80, 102909.